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LIHHARY 

OF  THE 
NIVERSITV  chuiNO. 


Jniversity  of  Cincinnati 


BuUctin-NQ,  14 
JULY  1902. 


Publications  of  the  University  of  Cincinnati^ 
Series  II.  Voi,.  II. 


BUTTERFLIES  and  MOTHS 

WILLIAM  OSBURN,  A.M. 


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^?^'"~J^^^<-^,^ 


A  False  Conception, 


The  University  Bulletins  are  Issued  Monthly 


Entered  at  the  Post  Office  at  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  as  second-class  matter 


Return  this  book  on  or  before  the 
Latest  Date  stamped  below. 


University  of  Cincinnati 


FIEUD  NOTES  in  ^A  TURE  STUD  Y 

A  CHAPTER  FROM  THE  INSECT  WORLD 
I.    BUTTERFLIES  and  MOTHS 

WILLIAM  OSBURN,  A.M. 


A  False  Conception,     See  Fig,  7^  p.  J  8. 


Issued  b}^  the  Cincinnati  Teachers'  Universit}^  Club  of 
Natural  Histor}'  in  the  Biological  Department 
of  the  University  of  Cincinnati. 


JULY,  1902. 


To  Thk  Tkachkr  : 

It  is  the  purpose  of  the  Cincinnati  Teachers^ 
University  Club  of  Natural  History  to  issue  under  the  title 
of  fie:i,d  notes  in  nature  study  a  series  of  pamphlets  in- 
tended primarily  to  aid  the  teachers  of  the  Cincinnati  public 
schools  in  interesting-  children  in  nature  study.  These  pub- 
lications are  not  designed  to  stock  the  teacher  with  series  of 
handy  bits  of  knowledg-e  for  exploitation  in  the  class  room; 
it  is  not  their  purpose  to  supph^  facts  around  which  the 
teacher  may  weave  thrilling  romances  of  Lilh"  Poh^wog" 
or  of  Tootsie  Cocklebur,  but  they  are  intended  for  such 
teachers  as  desire  help  in  acquiring-  familiarity  with  nature 
at  first  hand. 

The  purpose  of  nature  stud}'  is  to  cultivate  habits  of  ac- 
curate observation  in  the  child,  to  lead  it  to  see,  and  to  com- 
prehend what  it  sees.  Such  ability  is  of  fundamental  impor- 
tance, for  it  constitutes  the  ver}^  essence  of  success  in 
business  or  professional  life.  To  accomplish  this  end  the 
child  must  come  into  direct  contact  with  natural  objects. 
No  amount  of  ecstatic  sentimentalism,  no  number  of  stories 
about  plants  or  animals  or  rocks  will  suf&ce.  The  child  7nust 
see;  its  own  eyes,  ecu's,  fingers,  all  its  senses,  not  those  of  the 
teacher,  must  tell  it  what  the  facts  of  nature  are.  Teachers 
are  g-uides  and  they  are  successful  in  nature  study  onh^  in 
such  deg-ree  as  they  know  nature  rather  than  books.  It  is 
hoped  that  the  present  series  of  pamphlets  will  aid  in  direct- 
ing some  to  the  proper  source.  To  employ  these  pages  as 
texts  from  which  to  make  recitations,  or  as  a  means  of  fun- 
nelling information  into  students  is  a  grave  abuse  and  a  per- 
version of  their  purpose. 

A  fee  sufficient  to  cover  the  cost  of  paper  and  printing 
is  charged  for  each  number.  Correspondence  is  invited  from 
all  persons  interested.  Address,  Department  of  Biology, 
Universit}'  of  Cincinnati. 

EDITOR. 


A  CHAPTER  FROM  THE  INSECT  WORLD. 
BUTTERFLIES  AND  MOTHS, 

WILLIAM  OSBURN,  A.M. 


I. 

NATURE  STUDY. 

The  value  of  nature  study  is  being-  appreciated  more  and 
more  as  an  efficient  means  of  educating  the  mind  throug-h  the 
senses.  It  is  an  encouraging  sig^n  that  in  the  larg-e  cities 
considerable  attention  is  given  in  the  elementarA^  schools  to 
observational  work.  The  citv  boy  and  the  cit}'  girl  are  in 
some  respects  at  a  disadvantag'e  in  the  race  of  life  and  need 
all  the  help  and  encourag-ement  that  can  be  given  them. 
Their  countrv  brothers  and  sisters  sometimes  outstrip  them, 
not  alone  because  a  vigorous  outdoor  life  has  developed  a 
strong  ph3'sical  manhood,  but  because  the}'  have  been  under 
the  tutelage  of  that  benign  teacher.  Nature.  Communion 
with  nature  is  ennobling.  It  broadens  the  mental  and  spirit- 
ual horizon.  It  begets  hig-h  ideals.  It  iires  the  soul  with 
lofty  ambitions.  It  kindles  a  pleasure  like  that  experienced 
b}'  ever}'  discoverer  of  truth.  It  dispels  gloom  when  the 
shadows  of  life  multiply,  and  fortifies  with  hope  and  courage. 
How  sugg-estive  the  words  of  Bryant  : 

"  To  him  who,  in  the  love  of  Nature,  holds 
Communion  with  her  visible  forms,  she  speaks 
A  various  languag^e  :  for  his  g-ayer  hours 
She  has  a  voice  of  gladness,  and  a  smile 
And  eloquence  of  beauty  ;  and  she  g^lides 
Into  his  darker  musing-s  with  a  mild 
And  healing-  sympathy,  that  steals  away 
Their  sharpness  ere  he  is  aware." 


He  who  studies  nature  and  correctl}"  interprets  her  lan- 
guage reads  a  book  that  is  free  from  error ;  for  he  reads  the 
thoughts  of  the  Great  Thinker.  For,  what  is  nature  but  the 
expression  of  His  thought  ?  If  he  reads  unaided,  he  discovers 
truth  ;  if  he  follows  the  interpretation  of  another,  he  demon- 
strates the  truth.  To  discover  or  demonstrate  truth  is  an 
exercise  of  high  disciplinary^  value. 

A  well  recognized  value  of  nature  stud3"  is  the  cultivation 
it  affords  to  the  observational  powers.  To  make  close  and 
accurate  distinctions  is  a  task  of  no  mean  significance.  Its 
necessit3^  is  recognized  in  ever}^  field  of  labor. 

Herbert  Spencer  has  well  said  :  "  Exhaustive  observation 
is  an  element  of  all  great  success.  It  is  not  to  artists,  nat- 
uralists, and  men  of  science  only  that  it  is  needful ;  it  is  not 
onh"  true  that  the  skillful  ph)"sician  depends  on  it  for  the 
correctness  of  his  diagnosis,  and  that  to  the  good  engineer  it 
is  so  important  that  some  3^ears  in  the  workshop  are  pre- 
scribed for  him  ;  but  we  ma}^  see  that  the  philosopher  also  is 
fundament all}^  one  who  observes  relationships  of  things  which 
others  had  overlooked,  and  that  the  poet  is  one  who  sees  the 
fine  facts  in  nature  which  all  recognize  when  pointed  out, 
but  did  not  before  remark.  Nothing  requires  more  to  be  in- 
sisted on  than  that  vivid  and  complete  impressions  are  all- 
essential." 

More  than  a  score  of  3^ears  ago,  Chancellor  F.  H.  Snow, 
of  the  University  of  Kansas,  wrote:  "It  is  because  the 
power  of  observation  is  not  properh^  trained  at  the  time  of  its 
greatest  activity  that  so  many  of  our  'most  highl}^ '  educated 
college  graduates  find  themselves  far  inferior  to  self-educated 
artisans  in  knowledge  of  the  common  things  of  life.  The 
activit}^  of  the  observing  facult}^  begins  in  infancy,  and  should 
continue   through   the    entire  period  of  childhood  and  youth. 

The  common  methods  of  training  the  youthful  mind 
bear  too  much  resemblance  to  the  Chinese  method,  which 
trains  no  faculty  but  memory.  The  mistake  of  the  elemen- 
tary schools  is  too  often  repeated  and  intensified  in  the  high- 
er institutions  of  learning.  Many  a  young  man  who  can  ac- 
curately distinguish  the  niceties  of  the  Oreek  accentuation 
has  never  been  tauglit  to  observe  the  commonest  ol)jects  of 
nature  .iround  him.      Whenever  he  walks  abroad,  the   1)eauti- 


ful  and  curious  flowers  along-  his  pathwa}^  make  no  impres- 
sion upon  his  slumbering-  vision.  His  ear  is  deaf  to  the  deli- 
cate harmonies  of  the  notes  of  the  birds.  Life  for  him  is  di- 
vested of  man}^  of  its  most  satisf^ying  enjoyments.  Not  hav- 
ing- been  taught  to  observe  well,  he  finds  himself  ignorant  of 
facts  and  principles  which  have  become  self-evident  truths  to 
common  men." 

There  is  a  deal  of  truth  in  the  words  of  an  English 
writer  :  ''  It  is  wonderful  how  little  a  young-  man  may  know 
when  he  has  taken  his  universit}^  degree,  especiall}^  if  he  has 
stuck  to  his  studies.  He  ma3^  really  spend  a  long-  time  look- 
ing for  some  one  more  ig-norant  than  himself,  if  he  talks 
with  the  driver  of  the  stagfecoach  that  lands  him  at  his 
father's  door,  he  finds  he  knows  nothing-  about  horses.  If  he 
falls  into  conversation  with  a  gardener,  he  knows  nothing- 
about  plants  or  flowers.  If  he  walks  into  the  fields,  he  does 
not  know  the  difference  between  barle}^  r3'e  and  oats,  be- 
tween cabbag-es  and  turnips,  between  natural  and  artificial 
grass.  If  he  goes  into  a  carpenter's  yard  he  does  not  know 
one  wood  from  another.  The  same  experience  awaits  him 
wherever  he  goes  and  whenever  he  has  the  audacity  to  open 
his  mouth.  At  sea  he  is  a  land  lubber,  in  the  country  a 
cockney,  in  town  a  gfreenhorn,  in  science  an  ig-noramus,  in 
business  a  simpleton,  in  pleasure  a  milksop — everywhere 
out  of  his  element,  everywhere  at  sea,  in  the  clouds,  adrift, 
or  b3^  whatever  word  ig-norance  and  incapacity  are  to  be  de- 
scribed. In  society  and  in  the  work  of  life  he  finds  himself 
beaten  b}^  the  3^outli  whom  at  college  he  despised  as  frivo- 
lous or  abhorred  as  profligate." 

Since  these  words  were  written,  more  than  two  decades 
ag-o,  man3'  chang-es  for  the  better  have  been  made  in  the 
curricula  of  our  educational  institutions.  In  man3^  cases 
the  observational  studies  have  been  admitted  to  equal  rank 
with  the  dead  lang:uages,  but  in  some  quarters  there  is  still 
a  thoughtless  apath3%  or  an  inexcusable  stupidit3"  has  pre- 
vented the  recog-nition  which  their  value  in  an  educational 
system  demands.  Even  when  scheduled  in  the  reg-ular 
courses  the3^  are  taug-ht  b3^  rote,  little  or  no  provision  being- 
made  for  laborator3^.  conveniences  and    adequate    equipment. 


To  cultivate  the  power  of  observation,  therefore,  means 
not  onl3^  subjective  development,  but  the  acquisition  throug-h- 
out  life  of  valuable  knowledg-e.  Ever}^  da^^'s  contact  with 
nature  adds  to  the  common  fund.  The  knowledge  of  facts 
makes  the  discover}^  and  demonstration  of  truth  possible. 
Truth,  possessed,  insures  abiding-  knowledge.  Knowledge  is 
power.     Shakespeare  has  said  : 

"  Ignorance  is  the  Curse  of  God  ; 
Knowledg-e  is  the  wing  wherewith  we  fly  to  heaven." 

All  knowledge  is  practical.  There  come  times  in  the  exper- 
ience of  ever3^  man  when  he  finds  it  necessar^^  to  enter  the 
storehouse  of  memor}"  and  bring  forth  for  practical  use  things 
obscure,  which  had  been  thought  of  no  value.  But  knowledge 
obtained  throug-h  personal  contact  with  nature  is  in  the 
hig-hest  sense  practical,  because  it  concerns  thing's  that  are 
met  at  ever}^  turn  in  life  ;  it  is  more  abiding-  than  that  ac- 
quired second  hand  because  the  impressions  are  more  vivid 
and  therefore  more  easil}^  remembered. 

Our  plea  is  in  behalf  of  the  5'outh  of  the  great  cit}^  It  is 
not  to  be  thoug-ht  a  strange  thing  that  a  larg-e  proportion  of 
the  leaders  in  thoug-ht,  business,  finance,  literature,  and 
national  affairs  come  from  the  countr3\  Farmers'  sons  gravi- 
tate toward  the  cit}^  and  their  splendid  equipments  enable 
them  to  wag-e  a  winning  contest.  Statistics  along  this  line 
would  be  a  revelation.  There  are  no  doubt  marked  exceptions 
to  the  above  statement.  Often  the  cit}^  3^outh  is  able  to  win, 
notwithstanding  unfavorable  environment,  but  a  little  investi- 
gation would  show  that  he  has  not  been  confined  to  the 
smok}^  and  sometimes  moralh^  vitiating-  atmosphere  of  the 
crowded  city.  Suburban  residence,  frequent  visits  to  the 
countr}',  occasion  for  nature  study  in  the  public  schools  and 
the  universit}^  summer  outings,  frequent  opportunity  for 
travel,  and  fondness  for  outdoor  sports  have  brought  him 
into  a  pure  atmosphere  and  in  contact  with  expanding  influ- 
ences. Otherwise  he  would  have  gone  down  in  the  strugfgle. 
Let  us  g:ive  the  boys  and  gfirls  in  the  city  a  fair  chance. 
Kvery  inviting  door  of  nature  should  be  thrown  open  to  them. 
Much  of  their  enthusiasm  ma}'  be  misdirected,  but,  under 
the  g-uidance  of  competent  teachers,  much  of  it  can  he 
turned  to  gfood   account.     Nature  studv    in    the   ekMuentarv 


schools  should  be  emphasized  despite  the  erratic  notions  of 
educational  cranks.  High  school  laboratories  should  be  well 
equipped  that  their  pupils  ma}^  be  able  to  climb  at  least  half 
way  up  the  ladder  of  a  sj^mmetrical  education.  The  univer- 
sity should  find  them  at  this  point  and,  with  its  adequate 
endowment  and  splendid  facilities,  be  able  to  lead  them  up 
the  other  half. 

In  nature  study  much  emphasis  should  be  given  to  life 
relations.  It  is  important  to  stud3'  the  plant  or  animal  in 
action.  The  problems  of  its  life  histor}'  should  be  worked 
out.  In  botany,  interesting-  fields  which  ma}^  be  entered  are 
the  alg^e.  fungi,  mosses,  ferns,  flowering  herbs,  weeds, 
trees,  parasites  and  s^mibionts.  In  zoolog}^  the  aquatic 
forms,  insects,  reptiles,  birds  and  mammals  will  furnish 
abundant  material  for  study.  With  classes,  field  excursions 
under  the  direction  of  instructors  will  be  found  ver}^  helpful. 
Individual  work  should  also  be  encouraged.  Field  work  is 
ver)'  essential.  It  will  be  found  helpful  even  when  carried 
on  at  random.  But  the  student  should  set  for  himself 
special  tasks ;  he  should  seek  interesting  problems  to 
be  worked  out  and  direct  his  energies  toward  their  solution. 
His  work  should  be  with  purpose,  not  aimless  ;  systematic, 
not  desultory;  steadfast,  not  fitful.  Thus  the  pleasure  and 
profit  of  his  investigations  will  be  enhanced,  and  he  will  be 
able  to  add  something  to  the  accumulating  store  of  the 
world's  knowledge. 

The  reader's  attention  is  now  invited  to  a  phase  of  na- 
ture stud}^  at  once  interesting  and  profitable,  the  stud}' of 
the  Lepidoptera — butterflies  and  moths. 

II. 

LEPIDOPTERA. 

Butterflies  and  moths  are  representatives  of  the  great 
subkingdom,  or  phylum,  Arthropoda,  whose  species  include 
at  least  four-fifths  of  the  known  species  of  the  animal  king- 
dom. Their  position  in  the  natural  S3'stem  of  classification 
is  given  in  the  following  table  : 

CLASSIFICATION, 

Kingdom,  Animal. 

Series,  Metazoa,  man3'-celled  animals. 

-9- 


Phyluni,  Arthropoda,  jointed-foot  animals. 
C/ass,  Insecta,  insected  animals,    insects. 
Ordei'^  Lepidoptera,  scale-winged  insects. 
Sub-orde7's : 

Rhopalocera,  Butterflies. 
Heterocera,  Moths. 
Moths  differ  from  butterflies  in  several  respects.  The 
moths,  when  at  rest,  fold  their  wing-s  in  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion;  their  antennas  are  thread-like  or  feather-like  andrareh^ 
enlarged  toward  the  tip ;  the}"  usuall)"  fl^^  at  night ;  and  their 
larvae  in  entering-  the  pupa  state  usualh^  form  a  cocoon  either 
above  or  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Butterflies, 
when  at  rest,  hold  the  wings  in  a  vertical  position  ;  their 
antennae  are  enlarged  toward  the  extremit^^  forming  a  club ; 
the}"  fl}"  in  the  da3"time  ;  and  the  larvae  form  naked  chr3"salids, 
never  spinning  cocoons.     Consult  Fig.  2. 

NUMBERS, 

The  number  of  species  of  moths  in  the  United  States  is 
about  six  thousand,  w^hile  the  number  of  species  of  butter- 
flies is  less  than  seven  hundred.  These  numbers  represent 
approximateU"  the  number  of  known  species,    and  while   new 

species  are  being  added  to 
the  list  from  time  to  time, 
it  is  not  likel}"  that  these 
numbers  w411  be  |>-reatly  in- 
creased. In  number  of  in- 
dividuals, the  lepidoptera 
are  countless.  Nature  stu- 
dents need  have  no  fears  that 
the  supply  will  ever  become 
exhausted.  Allowing  that 
the  average  number  of  eggs 
laid  by  each  female  is  five 
hundred,  if  only  one  hun- 
dred of  these  reached  the 
imago  (adult)  state,  this 
Jj  alone     would     account      for 

FiR.  2.  their  vast  numbers.      Many 

YHhMriJ'lr'Nl.?.!;.  species,  howcvcr,  have  from 


two  to  several  broods  in  a  season.  This  accounts  for  the  fact 
that  individuals  of  many  species  ma}^  be  very  scarce  in  the 
spring-time,  but  exceeding-l}^  abundant  in  the  autumn,  and  sug-- 
g-ests  that  the  best  time  to  collect  manj^  forms  is  in  August 
and  September.  There  are  natural  causes,  however,  which 
materialh"  lessen  the  number  of  individuals.  Many  are  de- 
stroyed b}^  birds  and  beetles  ;  an  incredible  number  succumb, 
especial!}^  in  the  larval  state,  to  insect  parasites  and  f ung-ous 
diseases;  btit,  probably,  the  most  serious  agenc}^  in  decima- 
ting their  numbers  is  climatic  conditions.  A  drouth  causes  a 
scarcit}^  of  food  plant  and  is  unfavorable  to  the  man}'  trans- 
formations required  to  accomplish  their  metamorphoses. 
These  considerations  afford  an  explanation  of  the  strange 
phenomenon  that  a  species  ma}'  be  exceedingh^  abundant  in 
one  3"ear,  but  unusualh^  scarce  in  another.  Man}'  species  seem 
to  g-o  throug-h  a  cycle  of  increase  and  decrease.  There  is  a 
g-radual  increase  in  numbers  under  favorable  conditions  until  a 
climax  of  abundance  is  reached,  and  then  there  is  a  sudden 
decrease  and  positive  scarcity  of  individuals.  M}' own  obser- 
vations favor  the  view  that  a  marked  falling"  off  in  numbers 
g-enerally  follows  a  drouth.  At  Nashville,  Tennessee,  a 
species  of  butterfly,  known  as  the  Gulf  Pritillary,  Diouc  van- 
iliac,  L.,  reaches  its  period  of  greatest  abundance  once  every 
four  or  five  years.  In  the  fall  of  1893  this  species  was  noted 
for  its  abundance.  Then  followed  a  g"reat  paucity  of  num- 
bers with  a  gradual  increase  until  the  fall  of  1897,  when  it 
was  ag-ain  very  abundant.  The  winter  following-  was  unusu- 
ally mild  until  late  in  January.  It  was  so  mild  that  imag-oes 
of  this  species  emerged  from  the  chrysalids  on  the  15th  of 
January  in  a  breeding  cage  that  was  kept  in  an  open  shed. 
Then  followed  several  weeks  of  severely  cold  weather.  The 
following-  summer  was  one  of  great  scarcity  for  this  species. 
In  this  case  it  would  seem  that  their  decimation  was  due  to 
unfavorable  winter  conditions,  a  period  of  warm  dry  weather 
followed  by  severe  cold.  Migration,  northward,  or  south- 
ward, may  also  throw  light  on  this  problem.  A  practical 
lesson  is  sugg-ested,  that  the  time  to  gather  material  for 
study  is  during  the  period  of  abundance.  A  species  may  be 
abundant  to-day  but  scarce  to-morrow.  Neg-lect  now  may 
mean  a  lost  opportunity  for  several  years. 

-11- 


Many  species,  however,  do  not  seem  to  be  subj.ect  to 
this  fluctuation  in  numbers.  The}^  are  in  usual  abundance 
ever}^  3^ear.  This  ma^^  be  accounted  for  b^^  the  absence  of 
natural  enemies  and  b3^  the  fact  that  the  food-plant  is  of  a 
succulent  nature  and  is  not  affected  seriously  by  dr^-^  condi- 
tions. 

ECONOMIC  IMPORTANCE, 

The  stud}^  of  lepidoptera  presents  a  practical  side  of  no 
little  importance.  Nearh^  all  species  are  destructive  to  veg-- 
etation.  The  annual  loss  to  ag-riculture,  horticulture,  and 
forestr}^  amounts  to  millions  of  dollars.  The  injur^^  caused 
each  A^ear  b}^  the  caterpillar  of  the  Cabbag-e  Butterfly,  Picris 
rafae,  is  estimated  at  several  hundred  thousand  dollars. 
The  Common  Sulphur  Butterfl3%  CoUas  p/iilodice,  is  said,  in 
some  localities,  to  destro}"  one-third  of  the  clover  crop.  The 
larva  of  the  Turnus  Butterfl}^  Papilio  tiirniis^  feeds  upon 
cherry  and  apple  ;  Papilio  asterias  is  destructive  to  parsnip, 
celer}^  carrot,  and  parsle}^ ;  and  the  Giant  Swallowtail, 
Papilio  cresphontes^  causes  serious  damage  to  the  orange 
g-roves  of  Florida.  The  Gips^^  Moth,  Poi'thetria  dispar,  has 
wrought  such  devastation  to  forests  and  fruit  trees  in  Massa- 
chusetts that  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars  have  been 
appropriated  b}"  the  state  legislature  to  check  or,  if  possible, 
to  exterminate  it.  The  Arm}"  Worm,  Leticania  uiiipuncta^ 
occasionalh"  appears  in  larg-e  numbers,  moving- through  fields 
of  grain,  sweeping-  everything-  before  it.  Cut-worms,  of 
which  there  are  man}^  species,  occasion  untold  damag-e  to 
vegetables.  I  have  known  them  to  cut  down  ten  thousand 
cabbage  plants  in  a  sing-le  night.  The  Boll-worm,  HcliotJiis 
arniiger,  which  infests  the  ears  of  Indian  corn,  green  and 
ripe  tomatoes,  and  the  boll  of  the  cotton-plant,  causes  an  an- 
nual destruction  which  is  estimated  to  reach  into  the  millions. 
The  Fall  Web-worm,  Ifypliaiitria  cinica,  and  the  Basket  Moth, 
lliyridoptcryx  cp/iacjiicrac/orniis,  cause  a  vast  amount  of 
damage  to  the  foliage  of  trees.  These  are  l^ut  a  few  of 
the  destructive  species.  On  the  other  hand,  many  species 
are  beneficial,  the  imagoes  assisting  in  the  cross-fertilization 
of  plants,  the  caterpillars  feeding  upon  noxious  weeds.  The 
larva  of  the  Harvester,  Fniiscra  /arcjuiiiiiis,  is  carnivorous, 
feeding  on    plant    lice.      The   product   of  Silk-worms   has    no 

-12- 


little  commercial  importance.  The  student  will  do  well  to 
keep  in  view  the  economic  phase  of  the  subject  that  he  may 
be  able  to  contribute  something-  of  real  benefit  toward  the 
solution  of  the  vexed  problems  which  beset  the  ag^riculturist 
and  horticulturist. 

HABITS, 

What  are  the  habits  of  lepidoptera  ?  Where  can  they 
be  found  ?  They  ma^^  be  sought  wherever  vegetation  is 
found  suited  as  food  for  the  larvae.  Some  species  are  to  be 
found  upon  loft}"  mountains ;  others  in  low  and  miasmatic 
places.  Some  onh^  in  the  shades  of  dense  forests,  others  in 
open  fields.  The}"  are  to  be  sought  upon  flowers,  where  they 
feed  on  nectar;  upon  fruits,  veg^etables,  and  trees,  whose 
juices  and  sap  they  greatl}'  relish;  upon  damp  places  by 
streams  and  ponds  or  along*  public  hig-hways,  where  they  sip 
moisture  from  the  soil  and  feed  upon  microscopic  plants  and 
animals;  on  fresh  manure;  upon  fences,  building's,  and  the 
bark  of  trees,  where  they  often  bask  in  the  sunshine  ;  hang-- 
ing  from  leaves,  where  they  seek  shelter  from  the  storms  or 
a  place  for  repose  during  the  night ;  in  tall  g-rass,  or  hover- 
ing" over  plants  upon  which  the  females  deposit  their  egg-s  ; 
upon  hilltops  or  in  open  fields,  where  they  often  resort  for 
courting  or  sport  ;  in  the  air,  where  they  sometimes  pursue  a 
relentless,  undeviating  course.  In  the  daytime  many  moths 
maybe  found  under  loose  bark,  in  old  buildings,  underboards, 
and  in  hollow  trees;  at  twilight  they  may  be  seen  hovering- 
over  flowers ;  and  at  night  many  species  are  attracted  by 
light.  Some  species  of  butterflies  are  greg-arious,  collecting- 
in  large  numbers  upon  moist  and  sandy  places.  This  habit 
is  illustrated  in  Catopsilia  ciihulc,  Terias  iiicippc,  Aiuca  au- 
dria,  Colias  philodice,  Papilio  aja\\  Papilio  troilus^  Papilio 
turniis^  Lyccrua  coinyutas,  Lycceiia  pseiidargiolus^  and  several 
other  species.  Usually  the  individuals  of  each  species  keep 
together,  but  occasionally  three  or  four  species  may  be  found 
congregated  at  the  same  feeding  place.  The  Monarch 
Butterfly  has  the  habit  of  collecting  in  larg-e  numbers  in 
localities  favorable  for  obtaining-  food.  Several  species  are 
known  to  have  migrated.  This  is  true  of  the  Monarch  But- 
terfly, Aiiosia  picxippiis,  the  Snout  Butterfly,  Lihythca  hach- 
Diauui,   and  the  Thistle  Butterfly,    Pyrauicis  cardiii.       The 

-13- 


question  of  food  supph^  is,  undoubtedh^  an  important  factor 
in  determining-  both  the  g-reg-arious  habit  and  the  habit  of 
mig-ration.  Other  interesting-  habits  can  onh^  be  mentioned, 
such  as  fl34ng-  vertically  upwards,  feig-ning-  death  when  cap- 
tured, falling-  into  the  g-rass  when  pursued  b}^  an  enem^^ 
chasing-  other  insects,  fl3dng  in  procession  over  a  chosen 
pathway,  and  the  remarkable  instinct  which  the  females  in- 
fallibly exhibit  in  la5^ing-  their  eg-gs  upon  the  proper  food- 
plant,  a  habit  probabh^  due  to  the  sense  of  smell,  for  which 
the  sense  organ  has  not  yet  been  found. 

HOW  TO  COLLECT, 

In  order  properh^  to  carr}^  forward  study  in  this  field,  it  is 
quite  necessary  to  secure  material.  Destruction  is  often  the 
price  of  knowledge  ;  but  the  collection  of  specimens  is  onU^  a 
means  to  an  end,  to  afford  opportunit}"  for  working  out  the 
g-reat  problems  of  form,  function,  classification,  economic 
value,  and  evolution.  Without  the  specimens  in  hand,  it  is 
useless  to  undertake  either  to  prosecute  the  stud}'  of 
structure  and  adaptation  or  to  determine  questions  of  classi- 
fication and  nomenclature.  Knowledge  is  the  g-oal  of  the 
student  of  nature,  not  a  desire  to  collect  the  greatest  pos- 
sible number  of  specimens.  Any  other  motive  would  lead 
to  the  abuse  of  nature.  There  alwa3's  should  be  an  honest 
purpose  to  make  a  worthj^  use  of  ever}'  creature  destroyed, 
even  thoug-h  it  be  the  humblest  insect.  To  destroy-  for  food 
or  to  save  propert)'  are  worth}"  uses,  but  the  highest  use  is 
the  intellectual  and  moral  end  which  impels  the  true  natur- 
alist as  he  delves  into  the  arcana  of  nature.  These  words 
are  not  intended  to  discourage  the  true  collector,  whose  of  ten 
poorly  requited  labor  is  devoted  to  the  good  of  others.  He 
may  be  a  trvie  observer,  and  the  light  which  he  is  able  to 
throw  upon  problems  of  life  history,  habit,  and  distribution 
may  make  him  as  worthy  of  the  name  of  natviralist  as  is  the 
man  who  closets  himself  with  dead  forms  and  works  chiefly 
on  problems  of  morphology  and  taxonomy.  No  manufactured 
sentimentalism,  therefore,  should  deter  one  from  collecting- 
all  the  material  he  needs  for  the  prosecution  of  the  work  he 
has  undertaken.  To  be  a  good  collector  reiiuires  no  ordinary 
skill  ;  to    ])repare,  label,  and  arrange  material    in   the   proi)er 

-14 


order  after  it  is  collected  is  an  art  possessed  by  few.  Some 
simple  drections  are  here  g-iven  as  a  guide  to  beg-inners.  Other 
methods  are  g-iven  in  the  books  ;  nothing-  new  is  here  pre- 
sented ;  but  these  are  the  methods  adopted  by  the  writer  after 
several  3'ears  of  experience. 

1.  The  Collector's  outfit. — A  hunting  jacket  or  collector's 
coat  will  be  found  a  ver}"  useful  possession.  It  should  be 
well  provided  with  pockets  of  suitable  sizes. 

The  net  ma}^  be  a  simple  affair,  a  brass  ring-  fastened  to 
a  broom  handle  with  mosquito  bar  for  netting-,  or  it  may 
be  a  folding-  frame  with  jointed  bamboo  handle  and  fine  bob- 
inet  or  silk  g-auze  netting-.  The  latter,  of  course,  is  to  be 
preferred.  Frames  for  folding-  nets  can  be  secured  from  dealers 
at  moderate  prices.  The  net  ring-  should  be  about  one  foot 
in  diameter.  The  material  for  the  net  should  be  strong-, 
with  close  meshes.  Shovild  the  meshes  be  larg-e,  the  tails  of 
such  butterflies  as  Papilio  ajax  will  be  forced  throug-h  and 
frequentl)^  broken  off.  The  net  shotild  not  taper  to  a  point, 
but,  for  lepidoptera,  shoukl  be  simply  rounded  at  the  bottom; 
and  its  lengfth  should  be  about  twice  the  diameter  of  the 
ring-.  It  may  be  sewed  to  a  casing-  of  strong- 
muslin,  throug-h  which  the  wire  is  to  be  run. 
This  will  save  the  netting-  from  wear  and 
tear,  and  make  it  last  much  long-er  than 
it  otherwise  would. 

Several  large  killing  bottles  should  be  pro- 
vided. The  larg-e  morphine  bottle  is  very 
well  suited  to  this  purpose.  It  is  sufficientl}^ 
largfc  for  the  Cecropia  Moth  and  other  larg-e 
specimens.  The  cyanide  bottle  ma}^  be  made 
by  putting-  into  it  a  moderate  quantit}^  of  C3'a- 
nide  of  potassivim  and  adding  enoug-h  plaster 
of  Paris  to  cover.  The  plaster  is  then  moist- 
ened and  left  to  harden.  Another  method, 
one  considered  better  because  it  prevents 
moisture  (resulting-  from  the  deliquescence 
of  the  cyanide)  from  injuring-  the  specimens, 
is  as  follows  :  Place  some  small  pieces  of  paper 
in  the  bottom  of  the  bottle  ;  upon  themla}^  the 
cyanide  and  add  more  paper ;  cover  all  with  a 


Fig-.  3.  a.  Cardboard 
prepared  for  bottle. 
/'.    Cyanide  bottle. 
Sketch  bv 
T.  K.  Bagley. 


-15- 


wad  of  cotton  so  as  to  present  a  smooth  surface  above;  now 
cut  a  circle  of  Manila  cardboard  as  shown  in  Fig-.  3  <?, 
its  diameter  being-  about  one-third  of  an  inch  g-reater  than 
that  of  the  bottle  ;  with  scissors,  cut  inward  to  a  circle  repre- 
senting- the  inside  diameter  of  the  bottle  ;  with  the  point  of  a 
sharp  penknife  puncture  the  upper  surface  of  the  cardboard 
to  allow  the  escape  of  the  c^^anide  fumes,*  and  apph'  g-lue 
to  the  cut  edg-es  on  the  lower  surface  ;  now,  having-  folded 
the  cut  edg-es,  force  the  cardboard  down  upon  the  cotton,  ap- 
ph^ng-  the  g-lued  edg-es  to  the  sides  of  the  g-lass.  After  clean- 
ing- the  bottle  with  a  damp  cloth,  it  is  read}^  for  use.  When 
properly  prepared,  the  material  in  the  bottom  should  not 
fill  inore  than  one-fourth  of  the  bottle.  Such  a  bottle  should 
last  two  or  three  3'ears.  If  the  cardboard  becomes  moist, 
fr€sh  cardboard  and  cotton  ma3"  be  used.  A  cork  should  be 
used  and  not  a  g-lass  stopper.  See  Fig-.  3.  /;.  The  mouth  of 
the  bottle  should  be  as  larg-e  as  possible. 

Envelopes  for  receiving-  the  specimens  as  soon  as  the}'  are 

killed  ma3'  be  made  of  rec- 
tang-ular  strips  of  paper. 
The  paper  should  be  of 
medium  weig-ht,  not  so 
heavy  as  to  crush  deli- 
cate specimens,  nor  so 
lig-ht  as  to  bend  too 
easily  and  cause  delicate 
parts  to  be  broken. 
The  method  of  folding-  is 
illustrated  in  Figr.  4.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  have 
the  line  ah  perpendicular 


Fig.  4.  Envelope.  The  first  fold  is  made  on  the 
line  de\\\  such  a  waj-  that  the  lines  ab  and  cb  will 
be  equal  and  at  rig^ht  angles  to  each  other. 


to  ch^  and  the  distance  from  a  to  h  equal  to  that  from  c  to 
/;.  If  these  points  are  attended  to  in  making:  the  first  fold, 
the  remaining-  folds  can  be  made  easily,  resulting-  in  a  perfect- 
ly made  envelope.  A  hot  iron  should  be  passed  over  envelopes 
to  make  them  lie  smooth,  and  then  they  may  be  packed  in 
bundles  of  fifty   or    more    held    togfether   with    lig-ht    rublior 

*Caution — As  far  as  possible  avoid  breathing  the  cvanide  fumes. 
They  are  deadly  poison.  In  bottlin^^  specimens  take  advantage  of 
the  wind,  so  that  the  fumes  will  be  blown  away  from  the  face. 


16- 


bands.  Three  sizes,  made  of  papers  3"x  6",  3>^"x6/^",  and 
4"x  7",  will  be  found  convenient,  These  envelopes  may  be 
used  to  receive  any  kind  of  insect,  but  are  especiall}^  adapted 
to  lepidoptera.  Very  small  and  delicate  moths  ma}^  be 
placed  in  quinine  capsules,  adding-  a  small  piece  of  cotton  to 
prevent  shaking-  about,  or  they  may  be  placed  between  laj^ers 
of  cotton  in  small  pasteboard  boxes. 

One  or  two  metal  boxes,  tin  or  g-alvanized  iron,  will  be 
found  indispensable.  These  boxes  should  have  tightly  fit- 
ting- covers  and  should  be  prepared  with  cyanide  of  potas- 
sium in  a  manner  similar  to  the  killing--bottle.     The}"  are  to 

be  used  in  the  field  to  receive 
the  papered  specimens.  Many 
specimens  will  recover  if  re- 
moved too  soon  from  the  kill- 


ing--bottle    to    envelopes    and, 

therefore,  should  be  placed  in 

^ — —  a  box  containing-  the    poison- 

Fig-.  5.    Metal  box  for  receiving 
papered  specimens.  OUS  fumCS.        If  thlS  prCCaUtlOU 

is  not  taken,    valuable    specimens   will    be   ruined   by    their 
struggles  in  the  envelopes.     See  Fig-.  5. 

To  complete  the  out- 
fit, there  should  be  pro- 
vided a  few  insect  pins, 
or  fine  needles,  two  or 
three  tin  boxes  (baking 
powder  cans  will  do) 
for  caterpillars  and 
pupae,  and  a  note  book 
for  recording  data. 

2.  CapUiriiig  Speci- 
mens.— Moths,  except 
on  rare  occasions, 
should  never  be  netted. 
Even  then,  unless 
transferred  to  the  kill- 
ing-bottle very  quickly, 
they  will  be  damaged 
b}"    their   struggfles   in 

the    net,      the    most    Se-  Fig.  6.     sugaring  for  moths. 

Sketch  bj^  T.  K.  Bagley. 


-17- 


rious  damag-e  being-  the  rubbing-  off  of  the  scales  from  the 
thorax. ,  As  a  rule,  moths  ma}"  be  captured  by  simpl}^  pla- 
cing- the  mouth  of  the  bottle  over  the  specimen  while  at  rest. 
Many  specimens  ma}"  be  taken  in  this  way  by  lig-hts  at  nig-ht ; 
others  ma}' be  taken  by  a  process  called  "sugaring-."  Molas- 
ses, thinned  with  vineg-ar,  is  used  and  applied  with  a  brush 
to  fences  and  boards  nailed  to  trees.  These  places  are  then 
visited  with  a  lantern,  and  the  specimens  that  have  been  at- 
tracted to  the  bait  are  easily  bottled,  Many  rare  catocolas 
and  other  noctuids  may  be  taken  in  this  way  that  otherwise 
would  escape  observation.     Examine  Fig-.  6. 

Butterflies,  except  a  few  of  the  Theclas,  must  be  netted. 
This  may  be  done  while  they  are  at  rest  or  hovering-  over 
flowers.     It  is  folly  to  chase  a  butterfly.     See   frontispiece. 

Ninety-nine  such  esca- 
pades will  result  in 
ig-nominious  defeat, 
and  the  one  successful 
effort  usually  will  yield 
a  damag-ed  specimen. 
A  more  r  at  ional 
method  is  to  approach 
the  butterfly  from  be- 
hind with  a  slow  and 
g-lidingf  motion,  avoid 
any  sudden  motion  un- 
til the  flnal  stroke  is 
made,  and  your  effort 
will  probably  result 
If  unsuccessful,  follow  it  until  it  lig-hts 
When  netting-,  a  (luick  turn  of 


A  more  rational  Motliod 
T.  K.  Baglkv. 


Skotch  by 


favorably.  Pig.  7. 
again,  and  repeat  the  effort, 
the  handle  will  make  a  fold  in  the  net  and  prevent  the  es- 
cape of  the  specimen.  Capture  Init  one  at  a  time.  When 
captured,  it  should  be  removed  from  the  net  to  the  bottle  as 
(juickly  as  ])Ossible.  This  may  be  done  by  laying  the  net, 
mouth  downward,  upon  the  ground  and  inserting  the  bottle 
with  a  (jtiick  motion  toward  the  specimen.  But  one  specimen 
should  be  killed  at  a  time,  and  never  when  others  are  in  the 
bottle.  This  sliould  be  made  a  cast-iron  rule,  if  perfect 
specimens  are  desired.      If  it  is  not  followed,    much    beautiful 


IH 


material  will  be  ruined  by  the  strugfg-les  of  those  most  recently 
bottled.  One  perfect  specimen  is  worth  a  hundred  damag-ed 
ones.  For  this  reason  all  faded,  worn,  and  rag"g"ed  material 
should  be  rejected  as  soon  as  captured.  As  a  rule,  when  the 
delicate  fringe  upon  the  marg-ins  of  the  wings  is  intact,  the 
specimen  will  be  found  to  be  in  perfect  condition. 

3.  Papering. — This  is  a  very  important  step.  As  soon 
as  rigor  sets  in,  the  butterfly  or  moth  should  be  removed 
from  the  bottle.  This  is  important  to  prevent  any  unneces- 
sary rubbing  of  the  scales  and  to  facilitate  the  process  of  re- 
versing the  wings,  should  this  be  necessary.  It  very  often 
happens  that  the  wings,  instead  of  folding  upward  as 
they  are  held  in  life,  turn  downward.  The  specimen  should 
never  be  papered  with  the  wings  in  this  position.  They 
may  be  readil}^  reversed  if  removed  from  the  bottle  before 
the  muscles  of  the  wings  become  set.  This  may  be  accom- 
plished by  inserting  a  line  needle  into 
the^thorax  between  the  legs  and  gent- 

.1}^  blowing  upon  the  under  surface  or 
carefully  lifting  them  with  a  pin. 
The  needle  should  not  be  inserted  in- 
to the  upper  surface  of  the  thorax,  for 
the  escaping  fluid  will  damage  the 
specimen.  When  the  wings  have  been 
reversed,  if  this  be  necessary,  it  ma}' 
be  seized  by  the  thorax  at  the  base  of 
the  wings,  and  dropi)ed  into  the  en- 
velope in  such  a  way  that  the  bod_v  will  lie  toward  the  long 
side  of  the  same.  See  Fig.  8.  Never  seize  a  butterfly  or 
moth  b_v  the  wings  as  the  scales  are  easilN'  detached.  It  ma}' 
be  lifted  up  by  the  tarsus  or  antenna  and  then  caught  by  the 
thorax,  as  suggested,  between  the  thumb  and  forelinger. 

4.  Data. — When  the  day's  collecting  is  over,  the  mate- 
rial ma}'  be  sorted  and  placed  in  clean  envelopes,  unless  the 
insects  are  to  be  mounted  at  once.  Kach  envelope  should 
bear  the  following  data,  either  stamped  or  written  upon  one 
side  before  the  specimen  has  been  committed  to  it,  viz.  :  {a) 
A  number  corresponding  with  the  number  of  some  approved 
checklist  or,  better  3'et,  the  full  specific  name  ;  (/;.)  the  name 
of  the  collector  ;   (<^)  the  locality;    and   (<rO  the  date  of  coUec- 


Fig'.  8.  Envelope  with  spi'oi 

llKMl. 


19- 


tion.  The  envelopes  ma}"  then  be  put  awa)"  in  boxes  (well 
made  paper  boxes  will  answer)  in  each  of  which  two  or  three 
camphor  balls  have  been  placed.  If  the  box  has  been  divi- 
ded into  partitions,  two  or  three  species  ma}^  be  kept  in  the 
same  box.  Labels,  bearing-  numbers  or  names,  may  be  placed 
on  the  box  front  to  facilitate  the  finding-  of  material  desired 
or  the  proper  distribution  of  new  material.  Thus  disposed 
of,  material  may  be  kept  safel}"  for  years,  and  then  relaxed 
and  mounted.  In  this  condition,  also,  the}^  ma}"  be  shipped 
to  g-reat  distances  with  perfect  safety.  The  usual  method 
of  packing-  is  to  use  a  lig-ht  wooden  box  (such  as  an  empt}" 
cig-ar  box).  Place  a  thin  la3"er  of  cotton  in  the  bottom,  pack 
the  envelopes  with  specimens  snug-ly,  cover  with  enoug-h 
cotton  to  fill  the  box,  and  then  fasten  the  lid  with  a  brad. 
Most  exchang-es  are  conducted  in  this  way. 

HOW  TO  RELAX. 

Dried  specimens  may  be  relaxed  for  spreading-  b)-  pla- 
cing- them  in  a  moist  chamber.  Several  methods  have  been 
devised,  such  as  steaming-,  laying-  th*e  specimens  on  damp 
sand,  placing-  them  on  wet  cotton  in  a  closed  jar,  and  la5"ing- 
them  between  wet  cloths.  The  following-  method  will  be 
found  satisfactor}^  if  carefully  followed  :  Place  the  envel- 
opes containing-  specimens  between  pieces  of  wet  muslin. 
These  should  be  cut  to  fit  a  g-alvanized  iron  box,  which  may 
be  made  of  any  convenient  size.  The  muslin  pieces  are  to 
be  placed  in  this  box,  which  has  a  snug--fitting-  cover,  and 
the  box  put  in  a  warm  place.  It  may  be  placed  in  an  oven, 
if  not  too  hot,  or  on  the  back  of  a  stove,  as  heat  g-reatly 
favors  speedy  relaxation.  A  few  drops  of  carbolic  acid 
should  be  placed  in  the  moist  chamber  to  prevent  the  forma- 
tion of  mould.  Water  should  not  be  allowed  to  come  in  direct 
contact  with  the  specimens.  This  is  prevented  by  keeping: 
them  in  the  envelopes  until  relaxed.  The  time  required  for 
relaxing-  varies  from  six  to  twenty-four  hours,  according-  to 
the  size  of  the  specimens. 

HOW  TO  SPREAD. 

Pin  the  specimen  through  the  middle  of  the  thorax  so 
that  the  pin  will  be  perpendicular  to  the  dorsal  surface  of 
the  l)()dy.  As  a  rule  it  should  be  placed  high  on  the  pin, 
always   allowing   enough    of    the    i)in    to    project    above    the 

-20- 


■*v 


body  to  admit  a  firm  grasp  with  the  fingers ;  that  is,  not 
less  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch.  As  all  insect  pins  are  about 
the  same  leng-th,  this  will  allow  the  specimens  to  be  pinned 
in  the  box  so  that  the  wings  will  be  on  the  same  level.  The 
spreading-board  should  have  the  upper  surface  slig"htly  bev- 
eled so*  as  to  pitch  toward  the  g-roove.  This  is  quite  impor- 
tant for  fresh  material,  as  there  is  always  a  tendency  for  the 
wings  to  droop.     With  relaxed  specimens,   however,  there  is 

a  tendenc}'  for  the  wings 
to  draw  upward,  and  hor- 
izontal surfaces  will  be 
found  more  satisfactor}-. 
The  board  should  be  pro- 
vided with  two  strips  of 
very  narrow  linen  tape, 
so  fastened  at  the  ends 
that  the}'  can  be  stretch- 
ed, one  on  each  side  of 
^  the  slot.  A  broad  strip 
of  spreading-  cloth,  or 
ordinary  tracing-  linen, 
should  be  placed  outside 
of  the  strip  of  tape. 
Force  the  pin  perpendic- 
ularly through  the  strip 
of  cork  which  lines  the 
bottom  of  the  slot  so  that 
the  wings  will  lie  flat  up- 
on the  side  pieces.  With 
a  setting-  needle  in  the 
left  hand,  hold  the  rig-ht 
wings  down  while  a 
i  needle  in  the  right  hand 
is  used  to  draw  them  for- 
ward. A  ver}'  fine  needle 
ma)^  be  used  to  hold  them 
in  position  while  the 
wings  of  the  left  side  are  drawn  forward  in  similar  manner. 
Now  adjust  the  wing-s  so  that  the  posterior  marg-ins  will  be 
in  line  with  each  other  and  perpendicular  to  the  long-  axis  of 
the  body.     Fasten  each  with    a    fine    needle    about    midway 

-21- 


Fi^. 


9,     Method  of  Spreading-. 
Sketch  by  Will  C.  Collins. 


from  the  base  to  apex  behind  the  subcostal  vein.  Draw  the 
hind  wing-s  forward  and  adjust  them  in  such  position  that 
a  small  angle  will  be  formed  near  the  outer  margin  where 
the  wing-s  overlap.  The  angles  should  be  exactl3'^  of  the 
same  size.  Now  adjust  the  strips  of  tape  over  the  wings, 
forcing  a  fine  pin  or  needle  through  the  tape  and  win*gs  just 
in  front  of  the  posterior  margin  of  the  front  wing.  These 
will  hold  both  wings  in  position  and  the  other  pins  ma}"  now 
be  removed.  Draw  the  spreading  paper  smoothl}"  and  firml}^ 
over  the  wings  and  fasten  each  strip  with  two  pins  forced 
through  it  just  below  the  hind  wings.  Now  adjust  the  ab- 
domen with  pins  to  a  horizontal  position,  and  see  that  the 
antennae  are  parallel  with  the  costal  margin  of  the  front 
wings  in  the  same  horizontal  plane,  and  the  work  is  com- 
plete. The  writer's  method  is  illustrated  in  Pig.  9.  Other 
specimens  may  be  added  until  the  board  is  full,  which  ma}" 
then  be  placed  in  a  dr3'ing  chamber  free  from  mice  and 
vermin.  The  time  required  for  dr34ng  varies  from  one  to 
three  weeks  according  to  the  size  of  the  bod}".  Relaxed 
specimens  dry  very  quickly. 

HOW  TO  LABEL. 

When  properly  dried,  the  specimen  is  ready  for  the  cab- 
inet and  should  be  provided  with  labels  exhibiting  locality 
and  date  of  capture,  the  name  of  collector,  sex,  and  name 
of  species.  Instead  of  the  name  of  the  species,  a  number  is 
sometimes  given  corresponding  with  the  number  of  some  re- 
liable checklist.  Printed  lables  containing  these  data  may 
be  obtained  of  dealers  in  entomological  supplies.  Two  la- 
bels may  be  used,  one  containing  locality  and  date,  the  other 
containing  name,  sex,  and  collector.  The  attachment  of 
the  collector's  name  is  not  a  matter  of  egotism,  but  a  part  of 
the  history  of  the  specimen. 

HOW  TO  ARRANGE. 

Dr.  Holland  advises  the  arrangement  of  specimens  in  ver- 
tical rows.  "The  males  should  be  pinned  in  first  in  the  sc- 
ries, alter  them  the  feiiiales.  Varieties  should  foHow  species. 
After  these  should  be  placed  any  aberrations' or  monstrosi- 
ties which  the  collector  may  iK)ssess.  The  name  of  the  ge- 
nus should  precede  all  the  species  contained  in  the  collection, 

-22- 


'AP|L!CW(DA[ 


LiO 


and  after  each  species  the  specific  name  should  be  placed." 
Consult  Fig-.  10.  A  method  adopted  b}^  some  is  to  arrange 
the  specimens  in  transverse  rows,  the  name  of  the  genus  be- 
ing- placed  above  each  g-roup  of  species  and  the  specific  name 
to  the  left  of  the  first  row  of  specimens  representing  that 
species. 

HOW  TO  PRESERVE  MATERIAL* 

Boxes  should  be  insect-proof.     Vermin  ma}"  be  destro3^ed 
b}^    fumigating   with    bisulphide    of    carbon.      Disinfecting 

cones,  to  be  obtained 
from  natural  historj^ 
stores,  will  keep  ver- 
min from  entering- 
boxes  but  will  not 
kill  them  after  the)^ 
have  become  estab- 
lished. Infected  ma- 
terial should  be 
thoroughh'  fumiga- 
ted before  it  is  put  in- 
to the  cabinets.  The 
most  important  item 
in  this  connection  is 
a  well-made  box. 
Mould  _v  specimens 
should  be  discarded 
as  soon  as  better 
material  can  be  ob- 
tained. Greas}"  speci- 
mens may  be  subjec- 
ted to  a  bath  of  ben- 
zine or  ether,  care 
being  taken  to  avoid 
a  lig-hted  lamp  or 
fire  in  the  operation. 
But  in  all  cases  it  is 
better  to  discard  in- 
jured or  faulty  speci- 
mens unless  they  are 
unusuall}"   valuable. 


Fig-.  10.     Method  of  arraiiyiiiH;  and  labeling 
specimens.     Sketch  by  Will  C.  Collins. 


-23- 


OTHER  DESIDERATA. 

The  student  who  expects  to  do  an}^  considerable  work  in 
entomolog-}^  will  need  a  pair  of  scissors,  dissecting-  forceps, 
pinning-  forceps,  insect  pins  of  different  sizes  (Klaeger  pins 
have  good  points  and  are  stiff),  glue,  alcohol,  formalin,  bi- 
sulphide of  carbon  and  a  few  other  reagents,  a  botanist's  can, 
and  setting  needles.     See  Fig.  11. 


f 

iniii! 


1     0  00 


FiR.  11.     Desiderata,     a.     Pinning-  forceps,     b.     Insect  pins. 
c.     Disinfecting"  cone. 

III. 

INTERESTING  PROBLEMS  FOR   THE 
STUDENT  OF  NATURE. 

All  the  problems  pertaining  to  living  organisms  are  full 
of  interest.  The  most  repulsive  "worm"  is  a  factor  in  the 
great  total  of  the  world's  life  and  presents  a  history  that 
challenges  the  profoundest  thought  of  man.  What  is  life? 
What  is  its  genesis?  How  came  the  organism  to  be  what 
it  is?  What  is  its  relation  to  other  forms  of  life?  What 
changes  are  going  on  calculated  to  modify  its  specific  char- 
acters? What  is  its  economic  importance?  Wliat  are  its 
habits  of  life?     What  is  its  distribution? 


24 


METAMORPHOSIS. 


The  problem  of  metamorphosis  is  one  that  should  receive 
careful  stud3\  Metamorphosis  comprises  those  developmen- 
tal chang"es  which  occur  between  the  eg^g"  and  the  perfect  in- 
sect. With  lepidoptera,  it  is  complete,  comprising-  four 
stages,  the  eg-g",  the  larva  (caterpillar),  pupa  (chr^^salis), 
and  the  imag-o  (perfect  butterfly  or  moth).  These  stag-es 
are    illustrated   in   Fig-.    12.      The   stud.v   of  metamorphosis 


"r^^mw  ft 


Fig.  12.     Metamorphosis  showing:,     a.     Eyr.^  (magnified', 
and     (/.     Imag-o  of  Monarch  Butterfly. 


Larva, 


Pupa, 


ma}'  be  carried  on  successfulh'  b}'  means  of  breeding-  cages. 
A  cag-e  of  simple  construction  is  shown  in  Fig-.  13.  The  es- 
sential points  in  a  g-ood  breeding-  cag^e  are  :  (1)  It  should  be 
sufficienth'  tall  to  receive  the  food-plant,  which  should  not 
touch  the  top  of  the  cag-e  but  should  come  in  contact  with 
the  sides;  (2)  it  should  have  an  abundant  supply  of  air  and 
lig-ht;  (3)  the  bottom  should  be  lined  with  g-alvanized  iron 
to  retain  moisture,  and  the  receptacle  for  earth  in  the  bottom 
of  the  cag-e  should  be  at  least  three  inches  deep  ;   (4)   a   re- 

-25- 


ceptacle  for  the  bottle  designed  to  contain  the  food-plant 
ma}^  be  made  of  galvanized  iron  and  should  be  soldered  to 
the  bottom  of  the  box  near  the  center;  ( 5 )  the  door  should 
open  upward  or  sidewise,  never  downward,  and  should  fit 
snug-l_v. 

Simpler  cages  ma}^  be  made  of  kegs  or  boxes  sunk  in  the 
ground  and  covered  with  netting.  The  breeding  cage  ma}" 
be  supplemented  with  glass  jars,  such  as  Mason  fruit  jars. 
A  portion  of  the  metallic  cover  ma}^  be  reamed  out  and  a  cir- 
cle of  wire  screen  fitted  in  to  admit  air.  Karth  ma3"  be  added 
and  kept  moist.  In  such  a  jar  the  food  plant  will  keep  fresh 
for  a  considerable  time  without  change, 
directions  for  breeding  insects  must  be  made  brief. 


The    following 


HOW  TO  BREED  LEPIDOPTERA. 

Whenever  parcticable,  eggs  should  be  obtained  in  order 
that  all  the  stages  of  the  caterpillar  ma}"  be  observed.  These 
ma3"  be  secured  by   watching   the   females    as   thcA"   deposit 

their  eggs  upon  their  respec- 
tive food  plants,  or  b}"  captur- 
ing the  female  and  placing  it 
under  favorable  conditions  in 
confinement  with  potted  plants 
upon  which  the  caterpillar  is 
known  to  feed. 

Larvae  niaA'  be  found  in 
almost  an}"  locality  where 
fresh  vegetation  occurs.  They 
should  be  sought  especially 
along  the  edges  of  fields,  in 
clearings  where  young  sprouts 
are  found  in  abundance,  in 
gardens  and  orchards,  and  in 
meadows.  Dense  woods  are 
FiR.  13.  r>fvvd\uir  catrc  (Riley).  uot  usually  f avorablc  for  them. 
When  the  foliage  of  any  plant  has  been  eaten,  it  should  be 
carefully  searched.  Some  species,  such  as  (h'apta  iii/crroi^a- 
/ioiiis,  prefer  the  under  surface  of  the  leaf  ;  others,  as  I\ipiIio 
tioinis,  are  to  be  found  on  the  upper  surface.  Some  may  be 
located  by  their  webs,  others  by  their  ejectemenla  on  the 
ground.      Some  are  borers  in  stems,    as   M(\i:(i//iyiii!i>  yiirnu' ; 


^^^ 


others  are  to  be  soug"ht  in  fruit,  nuts,  g-rains,  rotten  wood, 
carpets  and  clothing-,  beehives,  under  bark,  crawling-  upon  the 
ground,  and  even  in  insect  collections.  Feniseca  tcij'quiuius 
is  carnivorous  and  should  be  soug-ht  where  plant  lice  are 
abundant.  Man3^  species  hibernate  in  the  larval  state,  and 
may  be  found  in  winter  suspended  upon  trees  in  their  hiber- 
nating cases,  in  old  log's,  under  leaves,  or  even  beneath  the 
surface  of  the  g-round.  When  captured,  larvae  ma}'  be  put 
into  tin  vessels  with  tig-ht  covers.  Some  of  the  food  plant 
should  be  taken  at  the  same  time,  and,  if  it  is  unknown, 
dried  specimens  should  be  prepared  and  kept  for  determina- 
tion. Upon  returning-  from  the  field  the  caterpillar  of  each 
species  should  be  placed  in  a  separate  cagfe.  It  is  sometimes 
permissible  to  keep  more  than  one  species  in  the  same  cag'e, 
especially  if  the}'  differ  greatly  in  size,  or  if  one  is  a  moth 
and  the  other  a  butterfly,  or  if  the  identit}'  of  one  has  been 
determined  though  the  other  be  unknown.  At  all  events, 
careful  records  should  be  kept,  that  there  may  be  no  uncer- 
tainty in  associating-  the  imag-o,  as  it  emerg-es,  with  its 
proper  larva.  The  food-plant  may  be  kept  fresh  by  keeping 
the  stems  in  a  vessel  of  water  (a  largfe-mouthed  bottle  an- 
swers well  for  this  purpose).  Care  should  be  taken  to  pre- 
vent any  of  the  leaves  from  getting  into  the  water.  The 
water  and  food-plant  should  lie  chang-ed  every  day,  and  the 
bottle  should  be  cleaned  carefully  two  or  three  times  each 
week.  To  prevent  the  ejectementa  from  falling  intothe  ves- 
sel, the  mouth  of  the  bottle  may  be  filled  up  with  a  piece  of 
cloth  or  a  small  sponge.  These  precautions  are  necessar}-  to 
avoid  contamination  of  the  water  and  thus  prevent  desease 
and  death  among  the  caterpillars. 

Careful  records  should  be  made  of  the  various  transfor- 
mations, noting-  especially  the  number  and  date  of  moults, 
the  date  of  pupation,  and  the  date  of  emerging.  A  full  de- 
scription should  be  written  of  each  stag-e,  especially  of  the 
full  g-rown  larva,  the  pupa,  and  the  imago.  Accompan34ng 
each  cag-e  should  be  a  label  bearing-  the  followingf  data: 


NAME 


BREEDING         NO.  OF  DATE     OF        DATE     OF 

NUMBER      SPECIMENS  FOOD     ^viqULTING    PUPATION    EMERGING  '    NO. 
TAKEN 


-27- 


When  specimens  emerge,  the}^  should  not  be  bottled  un- 
til the  wing's  have  expanded  thoroug-hh^ ;  if  allowed  to  re- 
main too  long-,  however,  the}^  will  be  damaged  in  the  cage, 
and  much  patient  labor  be  brought  to  naught.  In  bottling 
specimens,  the  door  of  the  cage,  for  obvious  reasons,  should 
be  on  the  side  farthest  from  the  source  of  light. 

The  note  book  is  of  supreme  importance.  Observations 
should  be  written  up  daih^  Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be 
given  this  point.  The  following  order  will  suggest  a  fair 
method  of  arranging  the  material  pertaining  to  each  species  : 
1.  The  breeding  number;  2.  Name  of  species;  3.  Table 
of  data  as  given  above;  4.  Description  and  drawing  of  egg; 
5.  Description  and  drawing  of  larva  after  each  moult ;  also 
when  full  grown  6.  Description  and  drawing  of  pupa  ;  7. 
Description  and  drawing  of  imago ;  8.  Observations  on 
habits,  food,  and  life  relations,  including  notes  on  parasitism, 
variation  and  diseases. 

Work  of  this  character,  carried  on  as  directed,  will  3'ield 
much  valuable  information.  It  will  throw  light  upon  the 
character  of  the  food  plant,  the  identit}^  of  the  larva  and 
pupa,  the  number  of  moults  in  the  larval  state,  the  time  re- 
quired for  the  larva  to  reach  maturit}',  and  the  length  of  the 
period  of  pupation,  the  method  of  pupation,  the  number  of 
broods  in  a  season,  the  stage  and  method  of  hibernation,  the 
length  of  individual  life,  parasitic  enemies,  diseases,  the  effect 
of  light,  heat,  cold,  moisture  in  producing  variation  and  in 
retarding  or  hastening  development,  seasonal  and  sexual  di- 
morphism, and  man3^  other  interesting  problems  pertaining 
to  the  life  histor}^  of  the  species.  There  is  opportunity  here 
for  much  original  work,  as  the  life  histories  of  comparatively 
few  species  are  known  full3^ 

MOULTING, 

The  process  of  moulting  occurs  from  three  to  six  times 
in  the  life  of  a  caterpillra*.  As  the  larva  grows,  the  old  skin 
becomes  distended  and  linall_v  splits  open  on  the  dorsum  in 
the  region  of  the  thoracic  segments.  The  head  is  then 
drawn  out,  and  the  old  skin  gradually  worked  backward  and 
cast  off  at  the  anal  segment.  Before  moulting,  the  larva 
usually  retires  to  some  (juiet  i)lace,  refusing  to  eat  until  a 
new  and  roomier  skin  is  acijuired. 

-28- 


PUPATING* 

The  process  of  pupating- is  accompanied  b}^  a  moulting- of 
the  larval  skin.  Some  butterflies  form  their  chr3"salids  at 
the  surface  of  the  ground;  some,  as  Grapta  iiiterrogationis  and 
Pyrameis  cardui\  suspend  the  chr3"salis  b}"  means  of  a  cre- 
master  (spine  at  anal  end)  hooked  into  a  button  of  silk  ;  (See 
Fig-.  14)    others,  such  as  the  Pierinae  and  the  Papilioninae, 


Fig-.  14.     Showing- methods  of  suspendingr  chrysalids.     Sketch  by 
Miss  Blanche  Stuckey. 

not  onl}'  attach  the  pupa  at  the  tip  of  the  abdomen,  but  have 
a  silken  thread  thrown  over  the  the  bod_v  in  the  reg^ion  of 
the  thoracic  seg-ments  and  attached  on  either  side  to  the 
supporting-  object.  Manv  moths  spin  a  silken  cocoon  (Fig. 
15)  in  which  the  pupa  is  formed.     This  is   usualh'    attached 


FiK.  15.     Cecropia  cocoon.     Sketch  by  Miss  Blanche  Stuckey. 

to  some  tree  or  other  object,  or  made  in  leaves  at  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  Some  larvae  burrow  in  the  ground  and  form 
an  earthen  cocoon.  Where  much  moisture  is  present,  man}^ 
burrowing  larvae  may  be  induced  to  form  pupae  at  the  surface 
of  the  g-round.  This  sug-gests  that  when  the  earth  was 
warmer  and  the  atmosphere  more  highh'  charged  with  vapor 
this  was  the  usual  habit  with  such  species.  As  climatic  con- 
ditions changed,  in  order  to  escape  the  increasing  cold  of  re- 
curring- winters,  the  burrowing  habit  was  acquired  and,  after 
long-  continuance,  became  an  inherited  tendencv. 


-29- 


EMERGING. 

Butterflies  and  moths  usualh^  emerge  from  the  pupa  b}' 
splitting-  the  pupa  case  in  the  region  of  the  thorax.  The 
head,  antennae,  wings,  and  abdomen  are  drawn  out  of  their 
respective  cases,  and  the  newh^  emerged  imago,  clinging  to 
the  pupa  case  or  climbing  upon  some  object,  hangs  suspend- 
ed until  the  wing-s  have  expanded.  No  longer  a  "repulsive 
worm,"  or  seeminglj^  lifeless  pupa,  but  an  imago,  beautiful 
be3"ond  description,  it  wings  its  flight  over  woodland  and 
meadow,  ever  and  anon  sipping  the  nectar  from  fragrant 
flowers.  But  in  the  caterpillar  that  went  crawling  in  the 
dust  were  concealed  in  embr3^o  all  the  adaptations  of  structure, 
the  incipient  wings  and  e3^es  and  antennae,  the  beautiful 
colors  and  wonderful  possibilities  of  flight  and  instinct  that 
now  characterize  the  imago. 

PARASITISM. 

This  subject  furnishes  a  field  for  original  work.  Nearl}' 
ever}^  species  of  butterfl}'^  or  moth  has  its  parasitic  enem}^ 
an  opinion  based  upon  observations  concerning  the  life  his- 
tories of  the  more  common  species.  As  the  life  histories  of 
comparatively  few  species  have  been  worked  out,  the  stud}' 
of  parasitism  is  evidenth^  in  its  infancy-.  Parasites  consti- 
tute aver}'  important  factor  in  reducing  the  number  of  lepi- 
doptera.  The}'  may  be  vegetable  or  animal.  The  former  give 
rise  to  bacterial  and  fungous  diseases;  the  latter  feed  upon 
the  tissues  of  the  bod}-,  some  (the  worms)  infesting  the 
alimentary  tract,  others  (dipterous  or  hymenopterous  larvae) 
living  in  the  body  walls.  Among  flies,  the  Tachinidae 
furnish  many  parasitic  species.  The  female  lays  her  egg 
upon  the  skin  of  the  caterpillar.  Upon  hatching,  the  larva 
bores  into  the  body  and  there  lives  until  full  grown.  It  then 
leaves  the  body  of  the  dead  or  dying  caterpillar  and  pupates 
in  the  ground.  Among  hymenoptera,  the  species  of  Ichncu- 
monidae  and  allied  families  are  among  the  most  important 
checks  upon  the  increase  of  other  insects.  Some  are  external 
parasites,  sucking  the  life-blood  of  the  host;  others  infest 
the  body  of  the  caterpillar.  The  larvae  of  some  of  those 
that  infest  the  body  of  the  caterpillarl)()re  their  way  out,  when 
full-grown,  and  si)in  a  cocoon  upon  the  surface   of  the   host. 

-30- 


An  example  is  Apau teles  cou^regaiiis,  ( Fig-.  16. )  which  infests 
the  tomato  worm.  Others,  again,  pupate  within  the  bod}"  of 
the  host,  which,  in  some  cases,  also  has  entered  the  pupa 
state.  Examples  of  this  kind  are  to  be  found  in  the  ichneu- 
mon which  infests  the  larva 
I  of  the  Thistle  Butterfl3% 
^  ,  Pyranieiscardi(i,-aL\\A-a.no\.\\^x 
J  ichneumon  whose  host  is  the 

A  caterpillar  of  Papilio   ajax. 

'^^ ,  ,  ^  Careful     notes     should     be 

^    -x'^  made    of    all     parasites    ob- 

•'^,  '-"^^  served — of   their    habits    of 

life,  method  of  pupation,  and 
effect  upon  the   host.     And 
Fijr.  15.   Parasitism:   Tomato  worm  determinations     should     be 


covered  with  cocoons  of  Apantefca 
coiisTc.iratia;.  Sketch  by  Will  C. 
Collins.  date. 


made  at  the  earliest  possible 


DISTRIBUTION. 

Ever}'  species  has  its  life  zone.  Some,  e.  g.,  the  Anos/'n 
plexippiis  and  Pynnneis  cardin\  are  well-nigh  universal,  while 
others  have  a  very  narrow  life-zone.  The  rang-e  of  any 
species  is  determined  by  climatic  conditions  as  well  as  by  the 
distribution  of  its  food  plant.  Locality  lists  are  ver}'  help- 
ful in  determining  the  question  of  distribution.  Every  ob- 
server should  make  the  list  for  his  locality  as  large  and  com- 
plete as  possible. 

NUMBER  OF  BROODS. 

The  number  of  broods  of  any  species  is  influenced  b}" 
latitude.  In  the  southern  states,  where  the  warm  season  is 
lengthened  out,  the  number  exceeds  that  (tf  a  colder  climate. 
In  Florida,  for  example,  Papilio  cresphontes  has  a  succession 
of  broods  throug"hout  the  ^^ear ;  in  the  vicinit}'  of  Cincinnati 
there  are  but  two  broods  in  a  season.  Ag"ain,  the  number 
varies  with  the  species.  Argyuiiis  diana^  Telea  polyphenuis^ 
and  man}"  others  have  but  one  brood  ;  Papilio  ajax,  Datana 
perspiciia,  and  others  have  two  broods;  while  Pieris  rapae, 
Grapta  interrogationis,  and  others  have  several  broods.  To 
determine  the  exact  number  of  broods  in  a  season,  the  breed- 

-31- 


ing  cage  may  be  used,  or  observations  may  be  made  upon  the 
occurrence  of  fresh  specimens  during-  the  season.  As  a  rule 
imagoes  from  an}^  brood  of  larvae  become  worn  and  faded  and 
often  entirely  die  out  before  the  appearance  of  fresh  imagoes 
from  the  succeeding  brood.  Therefore,  careful  notes  on  the 
appearance  of  fresh  material  through  the  3^ear  will  give  a 
clue  to  the  number  of  broods.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind, 
however,  that  individuals  from  the  same  brood  may  emerge 
at  wideh^  different  periods.  For  example,  I  have  known 
pupae  ot  Papilio  aj'ax  to  be  formed  late  in  June.  About  half 
of  these  produced  imagoes  in  Jul)^  August  and  September, 
while  the  others  hibernated  and  emerged  in  the  following 
spring.  In  this  case,  evidenth^  some  individuals  are  one- 
brooded  while  others  are  two-brooded. 

LIFE  PERIOD. 

The  length  of  individual  life  varies  from  a  few  weeks  to 
several  months.  With  summer  broods,  the  whole  period  of 
existence  may  be  crowded  into  one  month  or  less.  The  Cab- 
bage Butterfl}^,  Picris  rapae,  for  example,   I  have  known   to 


Fig-.  17.     Goatwoecl  ButU-rfly.         Sketch  by  Will  C.  Collins. 

lay  eggs  late  in  June.  Caterpillars  hatched  from  these  eggs 
on  June  20th,  were  full  grown  on  July  <)th.  Pupae  formed 
on  July  9th,  emerged  on  July  17th.  The  imagoes  thus  formed 
would  undoubtly  have  lived  not  more  than  ten  days  or 
two  weeks.  The  average  life  of  an  imago,  summer  ])rood,  is 
al)()Ut  two  weeks      In   this    case,    the    life    period,     from    the 

-32- 


hatching-  of  the  egg  to  the  death  of  the  imag-o,  does  not 
exceed  five  weeks.  Take  another  illustration.  I  have  ob- 
tained caterpillars  of  theGoatweed  Butterfl}^  A/nsa  andr/a, 
(Fig-.  18)  from  eg-gs  laid  late  in  August.  These  pupated 
late  in  September;  and  the  imag-oes  emerg-ed  earh^  in 
October.  It  is  well  known  that  the  imago  hibernates.  At 
Nashville,  Tennessee,  imagoes  which  had  wintered  over  were 
found  to  survive  as  late  as  June.  Here  the  life  period  is 
nearh^  a  3^ear.  That  of  the  summer  brood,  however,  is  only 
about  six  weeks.  This  problem  of  the  difference  in  duration 
of  the  life  periods  can  be  solved  only  from  data  based  upon 
accurate  observations. 

HIBERNATION. 

How  does  the  butterfly  or  moth  spend  the  winter? 
Bach  species  has  its  own  peculiar  habit  in  this  matter.  The 
Basket  Moth  hibernates  in  the  egg*  state.  The  habits  of 
those  wintering-  in  the  larval  state  are  illustrated  b}"  the 
Viceroy  Butterfly,  Basihirchia  disippiis,  the  Great  Spang-led 
Fritillar3%  Argyuuis  cybcJc,  and  other  Argynnids,  the  cut- 
worms, and  the  Isabella  Tiger  Moth,  Ardia  isabcUa.  With 
out  doubt  the  majorit}^  of  species  hibernate  in  the  pupa  state. 
Kxamples  are  found  in  the  Papilionidae,  Sphingidae,  etc. 
A  few  hibernate  in  the  imago  state,  as,  for  example,  Anosia 
plexippus,  Grapta  intcrrogatioiiis,  Vanessa  antiopa,  Pyranieis 
cardu  /,  and  Ju  ii  o ;/  ia  co  c  ii  ia . 

VARIATION. 

Lepidoptera  furnish  man}'  striking-  illustrations  of  vari- 
ation. Departure  from  the  normal  size  is  noticeable  after  a 
period  of  unfavorable  conditions,  especiall}^  after  a  drouth, 
when  undersized  specimens  are  not  uncommon.  Spring  exam- 
ples of  imagoes  are  as  a  rule  smaller  than  those  appearing- 
in  summer.  The  size  varies  also  with  the  localit}-.  For 
example,  specimens  of  Argyuuis  cyhch  are  much  larg-er  in 
Tennessee  than  in  Ohio.  Color  variation  is  often  exhibited 
in  a  striking-  manner  between  spring  and  fall  broods.  This 
is  sonietimes  so  marked  that  technical  names  are  given  to 
distinguish  examples  which  appear  in  the  spring-  from  sum- 
mer and  fall  specimens.  The  forms  marcia  and  morpheus  of 
the  Pearl    Crescent    Butterfl}^    Phyciodes  thai'os.  and  forms 

-33- 


telamouides  and  marcellus  of  the  AjaxButterfl}^  Pap  ilia  aja.\\ 
are  illustrations  in  point.  Fall  specimens  of  Terias  iiicippe^ 
the  Nicippe  Butterfl}^,  usualh^  have  the  under  surfaces  of  the 
wing's  brown  instead  of  orange,  whereas  the  variet}^  ,//«!•«  is 
sulphur  3^ellow  throug-hout,  instead  of  orange.  Fall  exam- 
ples of  the  Dog-face  Butterfl}^,  Meganostoma  caesouia^  are 
often  roseate  beneath  instead  of  3'ellow,  as  with  Earlier  speci- 
mens. Albinism  and  melanism*  are  not  frequent.  I  have 
captured  albinos  of  CatopsiUa  eubule,  Meganostoma  cacsouia^ 
Terias  lisa,  Co/ias  p/iilodice,  and  Colias  euryiheme.  Melan- 
ism is  illustrated  in  the  dark  dimorphic  females  of  certain 
species.  These  variations  are  due  in  larg^e  measure  to  cli- 
matic influences.  Extreme  cold  is  known  to  have  a  pro- 
nounced effect  on  color  marking's.  Pyrameis  atalanta  has  been 
subjected  to  extreme  cold  b}^  artificial  means,  and,  after- 
wards, when  the  imag'o  enierged,  it  had  the  markings  of  Van- 
essa antiopa.  Reared  specimens  lack  that  brillianc}-  of  color 
marking's  which  characterize  those  developed  under  normal 
conditions.  I  have  noticed  especiall}^  that  bred  specimens  of 
Papilio  philenor  \dick  that  brig'ht  metallic  sheen  so  character- 
istic of  the  hind  wings,  even  when  larg-e  numbers  have  been 
obtained  from  the  breeding  cag-e. 

DIMORPHISM. 

Dimorphism  is  the  qualit}^  of  existing-  in  two  forms. 
Reference  has  been  made  to  dimorphism  in  the  discussion  of 
variation.  Sexual  dimorphism  is  as  evident  among  lepidop- 
tera  as  among-  other  types  of  animals.  The  brig-ht  yellow 
male  and  the  black  and  blue  female  of  the  Diana  Butterfly 
furnish  a  good  illustration.  Female  dimorphism  occasionally 
occurs.  A  very  striking-  illustration  is  seen  in  the  two 
females  of  Papilio  turnus,  the  yellow  form  resemblingr  the 
male.  The  black  form  is  termed  glaucus.  The  latter  does 
not  occur  in  Canada.  Undoubted'ly  the  dark  form  of  Pieris 
frotodice  is  always  female;  but  I  have  observed  the  light 
form  depositing-  eggs  upon  Shepherd's  Purse.  There  is  a 
well-known  black  female  form  of  the  Hobomok  Skipper,  At)y- 
tone  zabulon,  which  has  been  named />r;r<'///r>'//^^s.     Mr.  Charles 

*  1,     Albinism      Abiionnal  absence  of  colorinj;-  matter. 

2.     Melanism     Abnormal  (levelojjment    of  dark   coloring;-   matter. 

-34- 


Dury  of  Cincinnati  has  in  his  collection  several  3^ellow 
females  resembling-  the  male.  During-  a  period  of  ten  3^ears 
I  was  unable  to  obtain  in  Tennessee  any  of  the  lig-hter 
females.  The  black  dimorphic  forms  are  supposed  to  be  re- 
versions to  an  ancestral  t3"pe. 

LIFE  RELATIONS, 

The  ecolog-y  of  lepidoptera  is  a  subject  of  much  interest. 
Many  species  are  especiall}^  susceptible  to  external  influences. 
Heat,  cold,  lig-ht,  darknes,  moisture,  drouth,  electricit}^  and 
food  supply  have  a  marked  effect  upon  size,  coloration,  num- 
bers, distribution,  life  period  and  metamorphosis.  The  dis- 
cussion of  this  subject  must  be  limited  to  the  effects  of  heat 
and  food  supply. 

Heat,  other  thing-s  being-  equal,  favors  an  increase  of 
size  and  numbers,  promotes  g-rowth,  hastens  metamorphosis, 
and  shortens  the  life  period.  At  the  Universit}^  of  Cincin- 
nati, during-  the  past  winter,  several  cag-es  with  pupae  were 
kept  in  the  vivarium  where  room-temperature  was  maintained 
throug-hout  the  cold  months.  The  unnatural  environment 
resulted  in  hastening-  the  metamorphosis  of  several  species. 
Acronycta  obliiiita  emerg-ed  on  Januar}^  31;  Papilio  ajax  on 
February  15 ;  Papilio  Listerias  on  Februar}^  25 ;  Papilio  troiliis 
on  March  1 ;  Papilio  tiiruiis  on  March  5 ;  Spilosoma  vir^^iuica 
and  Leticarctia  acraea  on  March  7  ;  and  Hyphaiitria  cuuca  on 
March  10. 

The  food  supply  has  an  influence  in  determing- size,  num- 
ber, distribution,  and  metamorphosis.  Nearly  every  species 
has  a  chosen  food.  Frequenth^  it  will  prefer  starvation  to  a 
chang-e  of  diet.  Some,  however,  have  a  varied  diet.  In  Hamil- 
ton Count)%  Ohio,  I  have  found  the  Spring-  Canker  Worm, 
Paleacrita  vcnuita,  feeding-  upon  hone^'  locust,  elm,  hack- 
berr}',  apple,  and  haw.  The  Cecropia  Moth  is  known  to 
feed  in  the  larval  state  upon  fift}^  species  of  plants,  the  more 
common  being-  apple,  cherr}^  willow,  maple,  and  hazel. 
Such  lepidoptera  appear  to  have  an  advantag-e  in  the  com- 
mon strug-g-le  for  the  maintenance  of  the  species. 

THE  SOCIAL  INSTINCT, 

Reference  has  been  made  on  pag-e  13  to  the  g-reg-arious 
habit.     The  habit  is  striking-ly  illustrated  in  the  larval  state 

-35- 


of  man}^  species.  Among-  butterflies,  the  larvae  of  J^a/^cssa 
antiopa,  Apatiira  clyton.  and  Phyciodes  tharos,  as  well  as 
other  species,  are  greg-arious.  Among-  moths,  the  larvae  of 
the  Fall  Web-worm,  the  Handmaid  Moths  (Datana>,  the 
Carpenter  Moth,  and  the  Gips3^  Moth  furnish  a  few  of  the 
many  illustrations  of  the  social  habit.  In  Aug-ust,  1901,  I 
found  at  Colleg-e  Hill,  Ohio,  a  colon}^  of  caterpillars  of  the 
lo-moth,  Aiitomeris  io^  feeding-  on  cherr)^  This  species  has 
a  remarkable  habit.  During  the  earh^  period  of  its  larval 
existence  it  is  g-reg-arious.  This  habit  is  propabh'  for  mutu- 
al protection,  as  the  bod}^  is  covered  with  stinging-  spines. 
When  the  caterpillars  have  occasion  to  change  their  feeding 
place,  the3"  move  to  another  part  of  the  tree  in  single  file  ; 
and  so  closely  does  the  head  of  the  one  join  the  posterior  end 
of  the  one  in  front  that  the  procession  appears  as  one  long 
g-reen  worm.  Thus  they  are  able  to  keep  together  until  each 
can  shift  for  itself.  When  about  half-grown,  thej^  separate, 
and  each  works  out  alone  the  problem  of  its  destin3^ 

PROTECTION. 

In  order  to  maintain  itself  against  enemies,  nearh^  ever^' 
species  is  provided  with  certain  means  of  protection.  These 
ma5"  be  classified  as  protective  devices,  protective  resem- 
blance, and  mimicr5^ 


Fig-.  18.     Protective  device  of  Basket  Moth.     Sketch  by 
Miss  Blanche  Stuckey. 

Protective  devices. — These  include  any  adaptation  of 
structure  or  anj^  contrivances  by  which  protection  is  assured. 
The  nettling  spines  of  the  lo-moth,  the  scent  organs  of  the 
Pa])ilios,  and  the  hair  of  many  caterpillars  are  protective  adap- 
tations of  structure.  The  webs  of  certain  larvae,  such  as  that 
of  the  Kail  Web-worm  and  that  of  the   Carpenter   Moth,    are 

-36- 


devices  to  secure  protection.  Consult  Fig-.  18.  The  larva 
of  Papilio  troilus  draws  the  Sassafras  leaf  over  it  and  fastens 
it  down  with  silken  threads.  Some  feig^n  death  when 
disturbed,  while  others  wrig-gle  and  fall  into  the  g-rass.  The 
Spring  Canker  Worm,  when  disturbed,  falls  into  mid-air  sus- 
pended by  a  silken  thread.  Few^  birds  could  capture  it  in  that 
position. 

Protective  reseintjiauce. — This  is  illustrated  when  any 
species  imitates  the  form  or  color  of  any  adjacent  natural  ob- 
ject for  the  sake  of  protection.  The  Leaf -butterflies  of  India 
resemble  the  form   and   even  the    venation    of    leaves.     The 

Goatweed  Butterfly  (Fig-.  18) 
and  the  Semicolon  Butterfl}^ 
resemble  the  brown  leaves 
among-  which  thej"  hibernate. 
Many  g-reen  and  brown  larvae 
resemble  so  closely  the  vegfeta- 
tion  upon  which  they  feed  that 
they  are  detected  with  difficult  v.      Manv    Geometrids   often 


Fig-.  IQ.     Larva  of  Geonietr id- 
Protective  resemblance.     Sketch  by 
Will  C.  Collix.s. 


Fig-.  20.     The  Viceroy  Butterfly  :     a.     Imago;     b. 
Sketch  by  Will  C.  Collins. 


Larva. 


assume  protective  positions  in  which  they  resemble  dead 
twigs  or  the  petioles  of  leaves.  Fig-.  19.  Dataua  integerrima 
is  g-reg-arious  and  the  larvae  crawl  to  the  trunk  of  the  tree 
when  not  engag-ed  in  feeding-  or  when  preparing-  to  moult. 

-37- 


Here  position  and  the  wood-brown  color  of  their  bodies  afford 
them  decided  protection  against  the  attacks  of  birds.  Pupae, 
in  no  less  degree,  illustrate  the  same  characteristic.  They 
are  g-eneralh^  formed  in  places  and  upon  objects  where  the 
greatest  pretective  resemblance  is  afforded.  It  is  not  believed 
that  protective  resemblance  arises  through  any  volition  on 
the  part  of  the  individual,  but  that  it  is  rather  the  result  of 
natural  selection  operating  through  long  periods  of  time. 
It  illustrates  the  great  law  of  compensation  so  manifest 
ever3^where  in  the  natural  world. 

Mimicry. — Mimicr}"  differs  from  protective    resemblance. 

The  one  is  a  resemblance 
between  two  animals,  the 
other  between  an  animal 
and  a  plant, or  some  inani- 
mate object.  A  well 
known  but  striking  exam- 
ple of  mimicr}^  occurs  in 
the  Vicero3%  Basilarchia 
disippKs.  Compare  Fig.  20 
with  Fig.  12.  This  spe- 
cies mimics  in  color  and 
marking  the  Monarch 
Butterfl}',  All  OS  id  plexip- 
pus.  I  have  taken  speci- 
mens in  which  even  the 
the  transverse  bar  of  the 
hind  wings  had  disap- 
peared. The  Monarch, 
on    account    of    the     dis- 

Fig-    21.     Sutrgesting  protective  resemblance.       agreeable      JUlCeS      OI       itS 

body,  escapes  the  attacks  of  birds  and  other  enemies.  The 
Viceroy,  by  mimicking  it,  secures  immunity  from  the  attacks 
of  the  same  enemies.  This  resemblance  and  protection  do 
not  apply  to  the  larvae,  for  the  larvae  of  Anosia  plcxippiis 
are  destroyed  in  large  numbers  by  a  species  of  Tachina, 
while  that  of  Basilarchia  disippus  is  apparently  free  from 
the  attacks  of  parasites.  The  two  larvae  are  widely  dif- 
ferent in  form  and  color.  See  Figs.  20  Ik  and  12  h.  Here, 
again,  the  resemblance  is  to  be  accounted  for  on  the  ground 
of  natural  selection  rather  than  on  that  of  any  choice  on  the 
]);irl  of  the  indix-idu.'il.  -38- 


THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  EXISTENCE, 

The  law  of  natural  selection,  that  is,  the  natural  survi- 
val of  the  fittest  for  the  conditions  of  life,  prevails  here  as 
well  as  elsewhere  in  the  animate  world.  There  is  a  con- 
stant warfare  of  life  upon  life.  Birds,  beetles,  and  thousands 
of  diptera,  hemiptera,  and  hymenoptera  carry  on  a  war 
ag-ainst  butterflies  and  moths  which  would  result  in  exter- 
mination, were  it  not  for  the  kind  provisions  of  creative  wis- 
dom. Nature  is  full  of  compensations.  For  weakness  there 
is  an  added  cunning-.  For  exposure,  there  is  a  protective 
resemblance  that  deceives  the  keenest  vision.  Even  enemies 
ma}^  be  blessings  to  the  species, — blessings  in  disguise. 
Were  a  species  to  multiply  unchecked  it  would  soon  work 
out  its  own  extinction.  I  have  seen  elm  trees  completely 
stripped  of  foliage  by  the  larvae  of  the  Spring-  Canker  Worm 
long-  before  they  had  reached  maturity.  Thousands  had 
dropped  to  the  ground  and  were  crawling:  about  in  search  of 
of  food.  Without  doubt  the  majority  of  them  perished; 
the}^  perished  because  their  natural  enemies,  the  birds  and 
other  insects,  were  unable  to  cheek  their  rapid  increase; 
the}'  perished  because  the  food  became  exhausted  in  the 
presence  of  vast  numbers. 

We  have  given  a  meager  reference  to  a  few  of  the  prob- 
lems that  challenge  the  observation  and  thought  of  the 
student  of  nature.  Others  will  present  themselves  as  he 
prosecutes  his  study.  Indeed,  these  problems  are  of  wide 
application.  The  human  species  is  not  an  exception,  for, 
with  men  life  is  a  strugg-le  upon  which  all  must  enter. 
Many  must  go  down  in  the  conflict,  but  out  of  it  all  will 
come  a  nobler  manhood,  a  higher  civilization. 


-39- 


BOOKS  OF  REFERENCE: 

Holland's  Butterfly   Book,     Doubleda}-  &  McClure  Co., 
New  York. 

Comstock's  Manual  for  the  Study  of  Insects,      Comstock 
Publishing-  Co.,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

French's  Butterflies  of  the  Eastern  United  States, 
J.  B.  L/ippincott  Co.,  Phila.,  Pa. 

The  Entomological  News,     Phila.,  Pa. 

The  Canadian  Entomologist,      London,   Ontario,  Canada. 


DEALERS  IN  ENTOMOLOGICAL  SUPPLIES: 

The  American  Entomological  Co.,    Georg-e  Franck,  Mgr., 
1040  DeKalb  Ave.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

The  Kny — ScHEERER  Co.,  Department  of  Natural    Science, 
Dr.  G.  Lagai,  225  Fourth  Ave.,  N.  Y. 

The  Bausch  &  LoMB  Optical  Co.,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 


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line  28, 

"  30, 

'*  30, 

"  37, 

"  33, 

"  2, 

'*  28, 

"  8, 

"  25, 

"  37, 

"  28, 

"  33, 

-  19, 

-  19, 
"20-21, 
"  37, 
"  14, 
"  10, 
''  37, 
"  27, 
"  37, 
"  16, 


ERRATA. 

for  uno  read  uno  (1.  verno) 
"    viderit.  read  viderit, 
* '     Eaque  read  eaque 
"     suctransennas,  read  suci  transenna^ 
"    magnate  read  magnete. 


Latinus" 
canis 

occanum 

am 

Neptune 

amor 

invisu 

tiarent 

cader-ent 

aliena 
conlatus 

physioligi 
Sst. 


Latinus ' ' . 
canis  (ocnlos) 

oceanum 

an 

Neptuno 

Amor 

invisus 

tiaret 

cade-rent 

dfia 

X(')xXn\/ 

alieno 

consolatns 

7:d}.Xetv 

physiologi 

Hpp. 


CINCINNATI  TEACHERS'  UNIVERSITY  CLUB  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


Organization. 

Maximilian  Bkaam,    Principal  of  McKinley  School,    Pies. 
Amelia  Albert,  Kirb)^  Road  School,  First  Vice-Pi-es. 
Nkllie  W.  Kellky,  Linwood  School,  Second  Vice-Pres. 
Rose  Thomasmeyer,  30th.  District  School,  Recording  Sec. 
Edith  Donnelly,  Kirby  Road  School,   Corresponding  Sec. 
Catherine  Flick,  12th  Dist.  School,  Treasurer, 
Leon  Tedesche,   Curator. 
Michael  F.  Guyer,  University  of  Cincinnati,  Editor. 


The  following  Pamphlets  for  Teachers  have  been  issued: 

DARWINISM  AND  EVOLUTION.  A  Syllabus  of  Lectures, 

by  Michael  F.  Guyer,  Ph.  D.     Price  15c. 
FIELD  NOTES  IN  NATURE  STUDY. 

I.      A    CHAPTER   FROM   THE   INSECT   WORLD;     BUTTERFLIES 

AND  MOTHS,  by  William  Osburn,  A.  M. 


Address  all    business  communications  to  the  Universit)^  of 
Cincinnati;  University  Press. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS-URBANA 


3  0112  111534019 


